Reisman and Weber, both of EPA, reported in 2010 that rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of 15 chemical elements in the periodic table, specifically the lanthanides. Two other elements, scandium and yttrium, have a similar physiochemistry to the lanthanides, are commonly found in the same mineral assemblages, and are often referred to as REEs. REEs have not been mined in the United States for about 20 years, and prior to that time, the amount of mining was minimal compared to coal and hard rock mining.
The increased use of REEs in magnets, modern electronics and in a variety of commercial products has led to a shortage of REEs for production purposes. Currently, REEs are being disposed in large quantities rather than being recovered and reused. The purpose of this report is to serve as a technical information resource to policy makers and other stakeholders who are concerned with the potential environmental and health effects and impacts that can be identified across the REE supply chain. RTI conducted a search of the technical literature and other Internet sources related to each segment of the supply chain, including recent initiatives of U.S. government agencies that document issues associated with REE production, processing, manufacturing, end uses, recycling, and health/ecological effects.
Information contained in this report also draws upon past domestic and international experience, as appropriate. Compared to coal and other hardrock mining, the scope of REE mining has always been very small, both in the U.S. and globally. No major REE mining operations have been conducted in the U.S. since 1995. Mining and processing activities have the potential to create a number of environmental risks to human health and the environment. The severity of these risks is highly variable between mine and mine plant operations. The contaminants of concern will vary depending on the REE mineral ore, the toxicity of the contaminants from the waste rock, ore stockpiles, and process waste streams. The mobility of contaminants will be controlled by the characteristics of the geologic, hydrologic, and hydrogeologic environments where the mine is located, along with the characteristics of the mining process and waste handling methods.
As indicated, the purpose of this report was to serve as a technical information resource [as of 2012] to policy makers and other stakeholders who are concerned with the potential environmental and health effects and impacts that can be identified across the REE supply chain. RTI conducted a search of the technical literature and other
Internet sources related to each segment of the supply chain, including recent initiatives of U.S. government agencies that document issues associated with REE production, processing, manufacturing, end uses, recycling, and health/ecological effects. Information contained in this report also draws upon past domestic and international experience, as appropriate. The vast majority of information in this report is current. But, as noted in this report, mining and extraction of REEs is dynamic. Therefore, some details regarding who is producing what and where may have changed between the time when: (1) data collection as part of the literature search for this report was complete in July 2011, (2) the report’s contract was completed in September 2011, and (3) its subsequent publication in 2012.
Although the current literature provides limited information specifically relating to REE mining, processing, recycling, and environmental or health impacts, it is expected that more information will be produced in the future as a result of the increased level of interest in REEs in the past few years.
[For context in 2020, read the key findings in this report of 2012 in contrast with the current conditions of 2020].
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