Golev, and 4 co-authors, reported in 2014 that the unique properties of rare earth elements (REEs) and lack of alternatives for their application in modern technologies, especially electronics and fast growing green technologies such as renewable energy generation and storage, energy efficient lights, electric cars, and auto catalysts, as well as specific military and aerospace applications, underpin their strategic status.
The absolute domination of China in the production of REEs, aggravated by a significant reduction in export quotas since 2010, raised severe concerns of securing REE supply in the USA, Japan, European Union and other countries. In 2010–2012 it resulted in skyrocketing prices and supply deficit for most REEs, leading to numerous new REE start-up companies around the world, with allocation of large investments in additional geological explorations and technology development. At the same time, the
supply difficulties enforced the downstream users of REEs to invest in the development of recycling technologies and reuse options for these elements.
The main focus of this paper is to overview existing and emerging REE supply chains outside of China up to date (end of 2013), define their environmental constraints and opportunities, as well as reflect on a broader range of technical, economic, and social challenges for both primary production and recycling of REEs. A better understanding of these factors could help to optimize the supply chain of virgin and recycled rare earths, minimise the environmental impacts arising from their processing, and be used as a prototype for a broader range of critical metals and commodities.
The authors concluded that There is no lack of geological resources for rare earths, with proven reserves covering the current demand for several centuries. The supply risks for rare earths, however, exist with the monopoly of one country (China) over several stages of REE processing—from mining to separation into individual elements. Diversity in the supply sources is a key element for the current and future application of REEs, including the development of green technologies.
The existing and emerging alternative supply chains include mining operations in the USA, Australia, Russia, India, and Kazakhstan, as well as processing plants in France, Malaysia, and Estonia. All together they can significantly alleviate the Chinese domination in the REE sector. The new large scale REE mining companies such as Molycorp and Lynas will help to overcome the general bottlenecks in the supply of LREEs, while the recycling operations similar to those introduced at Solvay's plant in France can partly offset the primary supply for heavy and critical REEs. Recycling and waste mining are new potentially significant sources for rare earths. The reprocessing of existing industrial waste tailings and recycling of end-of-life consumer products would not only provide a more diverse and secure supply chain, but also could contribute to minimizing the environmental impacts arising from REE production.
A better understanding of the risks associated with rare earths mining and possessing including radioactivity issues, as well as fair communications with stakeholder groups are critical success factors. It is equally important for the minimization of environmental impacts arising from new mining projects, and for defining a comprehensive base to compare REE recycling with primary production. The values of the existing and emerging REE supply chains, based on the economic, technical, environmental, and social factors, suggest that recycling projects are the most advantageous, followed by the reprocessing of industrial waste streams for REE extraction. In addition, new rare earths mining and processing facilities should be developed outside of sensitive natural ecosystems, preferably targeting low radioactive ore bodies with higher content of critical REEs.
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