IAEA Report on Nuclear Power and Sustainable Development

Nuclear Power Industry

IAEA reports that since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, energy is now seen as a precondition for sustainable economic growth and improved human well-being, affecting health, education, jobs and gender equality. Moreover, energy also needs to be produced and consumed sustainably if the devastating impacts of climate change are to be averted.

The importance of energy rests on the recognition of the many trade-offs and linkages between energy and sustainable development. A critical issue in the sustainable use of energy is the incorporation of the full social costs in energy prices and the desirability of reaping large societal benefits (e.g. derived from the global abatement of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions). In addition, the various dimensions of sustainable development are often linked through energy related concerns. A first critical example is the management of the natural resource base and the desirable mix of non-renewable and renewable energy resources (since in the case of the latter, exhaustible resources will be consumed at the front end of a renewable technology’s life cycle). In addition, the nature and magnitude of emissions from fossil fuel combustion into the atmosphere (GHG, sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), etc.) affect the carrying capacity of ecosystems at the regional and global level, and can also be largely detrimental to people’s health. Furthermore, access to energy resources — particularly to modern energy services provided by electricity,
liquefied petroleum gas stoves and more efficient and lower emission biomass stoves — has been recognized as an essential need of the world’s poor. Yet, over 1.1 billion people are without access to electricity and 2.9 billion people lack clean cooking facilities (i.e. facilities that do not use firewood). Finally, granting physical access to modern energy services (e.g. via a connection to the electrical grid) will accomplish little if consumers are unable to afford those services.

The cost of energy from alternative sources is therefore crucial if those sources are to play a role in sustainable development. Furthermore, scaling up energy supply to pursue (rapid) economic development paths in developing countries (as seen, for example, in China’s recent past) will pose challenges to finite resources and the carrying capacity of ecosystems on an altogether different scale. Striking a balance between economic growth, quality of life and the development of natural resources is necessary to provide decent energy services for developing regions with growing populations.

Given the complexity and multiplicity of energy systems worldwide, there is no uniform solution to make them more sustainable, while simultaneously addressing environmental, social and economic imperatives. Since there is no technology without risk, waste generation or interaction with the environment, the role of every energy technology needs to be assessed on an equal footing. Despite the lack of consensus on the compatibility of nuclear energy with sustainable development, nuclear technologies are regarded by many as a viable option to satisfy specific needs.

This publication explores the possible contribution of nuclear energy to addressing the issues of sustainable development by using a large selection of indicators. The publication also addresses some misconceptions and misleading statements regularly associated with the development and operation of nuclear power plants (NPPs). These perceptions often result from a combination of exaggerations and statements that are demonstrably false. Examples include the misconceptions that nuclear power costs more than other electricity generation options, it is impossible to finance new nuclear power stations, there is no solution for storing and disposing of radioactive waste, the costs of managing radioactive waste is prohibitive, the remaining uranium resources will run out in a few years and that nuclear power poses substantial radiation risks to the public, consumes too much water, takes up too much land or contributes to air pollution. Throughout the publication, these statements are compared with objective, scientific information and are put into perspective with the respective merits and shortcomings of alternative sources of energy.

Section 2 presents the scope and the scale of energy challenges and depicts the potential role of nuclear power in sustainable development. Section 3 is devoted to the economic dimension of sustainable development and covers issues ranging from economic competitiveness to financing and the long term availability of energy resources.

The potential contribution of nuclear power as a means to strengthen energy supply security is also addressed. Section 4 is devoted to the environmental dimension of sustainable development. The section reviews the potential of various technologies to mitigate local and regional air pollution and GHG emissions, and compares their impacts in terms of waste generation, land use and water consumption. Section 5 looks at the social dimension, including impacts on health and employment. Intergenerational equity concerns of radioactive waste disposal, safety, proliferation and public concerns are also evaluated. Section 6 summarizes the conclusions of this publication.

This publication reviewed the characteristics of nuclear power in comparison with alternative sources of electricity supply and in connection with the SDGs relating to economic, social and environmental pillars of sustainability. The findings summarized here can also help the reader to reconsider widespread misconceptions regarding the development and operation of NPPs and their ability to contribute to more sustainable energy systems.

Concerning the economic dimension of sustainable development:

●  Uranium (U) resource availability is vast and, when measured in terms of reserve–production ratio, it is far greater than oil or natural gas resource availability. The natural uranium ore deposits identified globally and used in OTFCs are sufficient to maintain current levels of nuclear power generation for more than a century, similar to the length of time for which coal based energy supply could be maintained with currently identified resources. The large scale deployment of FRs with closed fuel cycles
would essentially remove the resource constraint altogether.

● The direct comparison of levelized costs of electricity generation identifies nuclear power as one of the cheapest sources of baseload power generation worldwide, particularly when grid level system costs or health damage costs, which are both minimal for nuclear energy, are accounted for.

● However, owing to the size and complexity of NPPs as well as the long lead times for their construction, the overnight investment costs of gas and coal fired power stations and of onshore and offshore wind farms are more favourable. Nonetheless, various financing mechanisms exist to alleviate the risks associated with nuclear projects and to allocate them to various stakeholders.

● As compared to its counterparts, nuclear technology remains less sensitive to policy changes such as the adoption of a stringent climate change policy, resource price instability or geopolitical risks.

Regarding the environmental dimension of sustainable development:

● On a life cycle basis, the comparison of GHG emissions demonstrates that NPPs are among the least carbon intensive power sources (less than 15 grams of carbon dioxide equivalent (g CO2-eq) per kilowatt-hour (kW·h)). Increasing the share of nuclear energy in a country’s energy mix  is usually foreseen to achieve a decarbonized power system at the lowest cost.

● Operational NPPs and renewable power sources bring about sizeable environmental benefits in terms of reduced acidification, eutrophication and ARDPs, thereby preserving the integrity of natural habitats and avoiding damages to human-made structures, among other benefits.

● The generation of electricity also creates waste, the management of which remains a key environmental challenge. In the case of nuclear energy, the very high energy density of uranium results in relatively low volumes of radioactive and other wastes. Around four fifths of the total nuclear waste that has already been created has already been sent for safe and controlled disposal. The first depositories for high level radioactive waste are expected to begin operation within a decade. Spent nuclear fuel can
also be partially recycled, while new methods are emerging to turn long lived radioactive waste into material with a shorter half-life.

● Life cycle water use by power generating technologies is another critical aspect of environmental sustainability, mainly because of the multiple and competing uses of water. Water requirements for NPPs equipped with once-through cooling systems can be substantial. But alternative cooling systems, such as hybrid systems with cooling towers, can bring water withdrawals down to levels comparable to those of alternative technologies. Future power plant designs and operations will also have to adapt to a changing climate, including droughts and flooding, so as to alleviate their vulnerability to such events.

● Land used for power generation, and the difficulty of restoring its original characteristics after the infrastructure is dismantled, is another determinant of energy system sustainability, particularly when the full life cycle of the plant is considered. Coal based electricity, with its associated mining and, to some degree, onshore wind generation and ground mounted solar PV usually involve significant land occupation. In contrast, a unit of nuclear based electricity requires only a limited land surface (median footprint of 0.78 square metre-year (m2 year) per megawatt-hour (MW∙h)).

Relating to the social dimension of sustainable development:

● A more sustainable energy system needs to be deployed with minimized impacts on human health. Nuclear and gas fired power stations encompass small levels of toxicity and allow for large reductions in particulate matter formation. Natural exposure to ionizing radiation, such as terrestrial or cosmic radiation, is several orders of magnitude higher than artificial, human-made radiation, especially the radiation stemming from the nuclear fuel cycle. Radioactive waste disposal emits insignificant doses.

● The transition to a more sustainable and, in particular, a low carbon economy is an opportunity to stimulate economic activity, enhance employment and improve the well-being of citizens. A nuclear power project creates many long term jobs in operations, contracting and in the supply chain. It also compares well with the alternatives in terms of money invested per effective megawatt of capacity. Furthermore, more skilled labour is necessary to design and operate complex nuclear technologies compared with other technologies, meaning that it has a higher potential to generate economic value during plant construction, operation and dismantling.

● The workforce is most exposed to risks of accidents and hazards in the fossil fuel and hydropower supply chains. In developed countries, the coal sector has much higher fatality rates than the oil and gas sectors. Risks are largely reduced in other sectors, including in nuclear energy and renewables, particularly in countries with long standing experience and large installed capacities.

● The specific sustainability concerns raised by nuclear power include the following:

â—‹ First, the management of radioactive waste generated by NPPs involves multiple future generations. From an ethical point of view, it may be legitimate to leave future generations the option to retrieve waste and manage inventories differently. In the interim, the secured storage of spent fuel must be guaranteed. The funding necessary for the construction of future disposal sites and their monitoring is also of critical importance and needs to be addressed with fairness.

â—‹ Second, attitudes towards nuclear energy tend to fluctuate appreciably and differ across countries, notably in the immediate aftermath of an accident. Risks associated with dread and the unknown, such as the perceived lack of control and the potential of catastrophic events with fatal consequences, often drive public opinion. Affective aspects also influence the weighting of risks and benefits. The public perception of the risks and merits of nuclear power, together with their acceptance, is of critical importance and necessitates dedicated, science based communication and public involvement.

â—‹ Third, maintaining and deploying nuclear capacity worldwide requires the most stringent measures on safety and against proliferation of nuclear material and weapons. The peaceful and safe use of nuclear technologies is closely monitored and continuously verified by the IAEA and supported by its Action Plan on Nuclear Safety.

In the light of the wide range of indicators compiled d in this publication and supporting these conclusions, nuclear power can be seen as a reliable source of power that can play a role in energy supply diversification and foster a more resilient sustainable power supply.