Conca and 6 co-authors reported in 2000 that Phosphate-Induced Metal Stabilization (PIMS) stabilizes a wide range of metals, especially uranium (U), plutonium (Pu) and lead (Pb), in situ or ex situ, by chemically binding them into new stable phosphate phases and other low-solubility phases that are stable over geologic time. Although some form of apatite is necessary, most apatites do not have the suitable characteristics of no substituted F, high degree of substituted CO32-, low initial trace metal concentrations, extremely poor crystallinity coupled with random nanocrystallites, and high microporosity necessary for optimal performance in the field.
A special form of apatite, Apatite II, has been found to be the most reactive, most cost-effective apatite available, having optimal structural and chemical characteristics for metal and radionuclide remediation. This technology has been successfully demonstrated on contaminated sediment and groundwater for U, Pb, Pu, Cd, Zn and Cu from mining sites and from DOE sites.
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